1902
Hermann Emil Fischer
Germany
“for his work on sugar and purine syntheses”
1903
Svante August Arrhenius
Sweden
“for his electrolytic theory of dissociation (see ion)”

1904
Sir William Ramsay
United Kingdom
“for his discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air”

1905
Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer
Germany
“for his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds”

1906
Henri Moissan
France
“for his investigation and isolation of the element fluorine, and for the electric furnace named after him” See:Moissan electric furnace

1907
Eduard Buchner
Germany
“for his biochemical research and his discovery of cell-free fermentation”

1908
Sir Ernest Rutherford
United Kingdom and New Zealand
“for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances”

1909
Wilhelm Ostwald
Germany
“his work on catalysis and for his investigations into chemical equilibria and rates of reaction”

1910
Otto Wallach
Germany
“for his work in the field of alicyclic compounds”

1911
Marie Sklodowska Curie
France
“for her discovery of radium and polonium, and her study of radium”
1912
Victor Grignard
France
“for his the discovery of the Grignard reagent”

Paul Sabatier
France
“for his method of hydrogenating organic compounds”
1913
Alfred Werner
Switzerland
“for his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules”

1914
Theodore William Richards
USA
“for his determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of elements”
1915
Richard Martin Willstätter
Germany
“for his research on plant pigments”
1918
Fritz Haber
Germany
“for his synthesis of ammonia”
1920
Walther Hermann Nernst
Germany
“for his work in thermochemistry”

1921
Frederick Soddy
United Kingdom
“for his work on the chemistry of radioactive substances and investigations into isotopes”

1922
Francis William Aston
United Kingdom
“for his discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his whole-number rule”
1923
Fritz Pregl
Austria
“for his invention of the method of micro-analysis of organic substances”
1925
Richard Adolf Zsigmondy
Germany
“for his demonstration of the heterogeneous nature of colloid solutions and the methods used”
1926
Theodor Svedberg
Sweden
“for his work on disperse systems”
1927
Heinrich Otto Wieland
Germany
“for his investigations of the bile acids and related substances”

1928
Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus
Germany
“for his research into sterols and their connection with vitamins”

1929
Arthur Harden, Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin
United Kingdom, Germany
“for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes”

1930
Hans Fischer
Germany
“for his research into haemin and chlorophyll”

1931
Carl Bosch, Friedrich Bergius
Germany, Germany
“for their contributions to chemical high pressure methods”
1932
Irving Langmuir
USA
“for his work in surface chemistry”
1934
Harold Clayton Urey
USA
“for his discovery of heavy hydrogen”

1935
Frédéric Joliot, Irene Joliot-Curie
France, France
“for their synthesis of new radioactive elements”
1936
Petrus (Peter) Josephus Wilhelmus Debye
The Netherlands
“for his work on molecular structure through investigations on dipole moments and the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases”

1937
Walter Norman Haworth
United Kingdom
“for his work on carbohydrates and vitamin C”

Paul Karrer
Switzerland
“for his work on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2″

1938
Richard Kuhn
Germany
“for his work on carotenoids and vitamins”
1939
Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt
Germany
“for his work on sex hormones”

Lavoslav Ružička
Switzerland
“for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes”

1943
George de Hevesy
Hungary
“for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers to study chemical processes”
1944
Otto Hahn
Germany
“for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei”

1945
Artturi Ilmari Virtanen
Finland
“for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method”
1946
James Batcheller Sumner
USA
“for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized”
John Howard Northrop, Wendell Meredith Stanley
USA, USA
“for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form”

1947
Sir Robert Robinson
United Kingdom
“for his investigations on plant products, especially the alkaloids”

1948
Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius
Sweden
“for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis”
1949
William Francis Giauque
USA
“for his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics”

1950
Otto Paul Hermann Diels, Kurt Alder
Germany, Germany
“for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis. Diels-Alder reaction.”

1951
Edwin Mattison McMillan, Glenn Theodore Seaborg
USA, USA
“for their discoveries in the chemistry of transuranium elements”

1952
Archer John Porter Martin, Richard Laurence Millington Synge
United Kingdom, United Kingdom
“for their invention of partition chromatography”

1953
Hermann Staudinger
Germany
“for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry”

1954
Linus Carl Pauling
USA
“for his research into the nature of the chemical bond”

1955
Vincent du Vigneaud
USA
“for his work on sulphur compounds, especially the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone”

1956
Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov (Никола́й Никола́евич Семёнов) United Kingdom, USSR
“for their research into the mechanism of chemical reactions”
1957
Sir Alexander Todd
United Kingdom
“for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes”

1958
Frederick Sanger
United Kingdom
“for his work on the structure of proteins, especially insulin”

1959
Jaroslav Heyrovský
Czechoslovakia
“for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of analysis”
1960
Willard Frank Libby
USA
“for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination”

1961
Melvin Calvin
USA
“for his research on carbon dioxide assimilation in plants”

1962
Max Ferdinand Perutz, John Cowdery Kendrew
United Kingdom
“for their studies of the structures of globular proteins”

1963
Karl Ziegler, Giulio Natta
Germany, Italy
“for their discoveries relating to high polymers”

1964
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin
United Kingdom
“for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances”
1965
Robert Burns Woodward
USA
“for his achievements in organic synthesis”
1966
Robert Sanderson Mulliken
USA
“for his work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules”
1967
Manfred Eigen, Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, George Porter
Germany, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
“for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions”
1968
Lars Onsager
USA
“for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name”
1969
Derek Harold Richard Barton, Odd Hassel
United Kingdom, Norway
“for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation”

1970
Luis F. Leloir
Argentina
“for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates”
1971
Gerhard Herzberg
Canada
“for his contributions to electronic structure and the geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals”
1972
Christian B. Anfinsen
USA
“for his work on ribonuclease”

Stanford Moore, William H. Stein
USA, USA
“for their contribution to the understanding of the connection between chemical structure and catalytic activity of the ribonuclease molecule”
1973
Ernst Otto Fischer, Geoffrey Wilkinson
Germany, United Kingdom
“for their work on the chemistry of organometallic compounds”

1974
Paul J. Flory
USA
“for his fundamental work, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules”
1975
John Warcup Cornforth
United Kingdom and Australia
“for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions”
Vladimir Prelog
Switzerland
“for his research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions”
1976
William Nunn Lipscomb, Jr.
USA
“for his studies on the structure of Boranes”

1977
Ilya Prigogine
Belgium
“for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics”
1978
Peter D. Mitchell
United Kingdom
“for his formulation of the chemiosmotic theory”

1979
Herbert C. Brown, Georg Wittig
United Kingdom, Germany
“for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into reagents in organic synthesis”
1980
Paul Berg
USA
“for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA”

Walter Gilbert,Frederick Sanger
USA, United Kingdom
“for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids”

1981
Kenichi Fukui (福井謙一), Roald Hoffmann
Japan, USA
“for their theories concerning the course of chemical reactions”
1982
Aaron Klug
United Kingdom
“for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy”

1983
Henry Taube
USA
“for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions”
1984
Robert Bruce Merrifield
USA
“for his development of methodology for chemical synthesis on a solid matrix”
1985
Herbert A. Hauptman, Jerome Karle
USA, USA
“for their achievements in developing direct methods for the determination of crystal structures”
1986
Dudley R. Herschbach, Yuan T. Lee (李遠哲), John C. Polanyi
USA, USA, Canada
“for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes”
1987
Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn, Charles J. Pedersen
USA, France, USA
“for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity”
1988
Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel
Germany, Germany, Germany
“for their determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre”

1989
Sidney Altman, Thomas R. Cech
Canada and USA, USA
“for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA”

1990
Elias James Corey
USA
“for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis”
1991
Richard R. Ernst
Switzerland
“for his contributions to the development of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy”
1992
Rudolph A. Marcus
USA
“for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems”
1993
Kary B. Mullis, Michael Smith
USA, Canada
“for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry”

1994
George A. Olah
USA
“for his contribution to carbocation chemistry”

1995
Paul J. Crutzen, Mario J. Molina, F. Sherwood Rowland
The Netherlands, USA, USA
“for their work in atmospheric chemistry, in particular ozone depletion”

1996
Robert Curl, Sir Harold Kroto, Richard Smalley
USA, United Kingdom, USA
“for their discovery of fullerenes”

1997
Paul D. Boyer, John E. Walker
USA, United Kingdom
“for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate”
Jens C. Skou
Denmark
“for his discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+K+-ATPase”

1998
Walter Kohn
USA
“for his development of the density functional theory”

John A. Pople
United Kingdom
“for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry”

1999
Ahmed H. Zewail
Egypt and USA
“for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy”

2000
Alan J. Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, Hideki Shirakawa (白川英樹)
USA, USA and New Zealand, Japan
“for their discovery and development of conductive polymers”

2001
William S. Knowles, Ryoji Noyori (野依良治)
USA, Japan
“for their work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation reactions”
K. Barry Sharpless
USA
“for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation reactions”

2002
Kurt Wüthrich, John B. Fenn, Koichi Tanaka (田中耕一) Switzerland, USA, Japan
“for their development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules”

2003
Peter Agre, Roderick MacKinnon
USA, USA
“for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes”

2004
Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko and Irwin Rose
Israel, Israel, USA
“for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation”

2005
Robert Grubbs, Richard Schrock and Yves Chauvin
USA, USA, France
“for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis”

Winners fizica
[edit]
1900s
Year Name Topics
1901
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (Germany) “in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him”
1902
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (Netherlands) and Pieter Zeeman (Netherlands)
“in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena”. See: Zeeman effect

1903
Antoine Henri Becquerel (France) “in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity”

Pierre (France) and Marie Curie (Poland/France)
“in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel”
1904
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (UK)
“for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies”
1905
Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard
“for his work on cathode rays”

1906
Sir Joseph John Thomson
“in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases”
1907
Albert Abraham Michelson
“for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid”. See Michelson-Morley experiment.

1908
Gabriel Lippmann
“for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference”

1909
Guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun
“in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy”
[edit]
1910s
Year Name Topics
1910
Johannes Diderik van der Waals
“For his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids.” See: van der Waals force

1911
Wilhelm Wien
“For his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat.” See: Wien law

1912
Nils Gustaf Dalén
“For his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys.”
1913
Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes
“For his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium”

1914
Max von Laue
“For his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals.”
1915
Sir William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg
“For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays.”
1916
(The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1917
Charles Glover Barkla
“For his discovery of the characteristic Röntgen radiation of the elements.”

1918
Max Planck
“In recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta.”

1919
Johannes Stark
“For his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields.” See: Stark effect

[edit]
1920s
Year Name Topics
1920
Charles Edouard Guillaume
“in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys”
1921
Albert Einstein
“for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”

1922
Niels Henrik David Bohr
“for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them”
1923
Robert Andrews Millikan
“for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect”
1924
Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn
“for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy”

1925
James Franck and Gustav Ludwig Hertz
“for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom”

1926
Jean Baptiste Perrin
“for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium”

1927
Arthur Holly Compton
“for his discovery of the effect named after him”. See: Compton effect

Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
“for his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour”. See: cloud chamber

1928
Owen Willans Richardson
“for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him”

1929
Prince Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie
“for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons”. See: De Broglie hypothesis

[edit]
1930s
Year Name Topics
1930
Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman
“for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him”

1931
(The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1932
Werner Karl Heisenberg
“for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen”
1933
Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac
“for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory”

1934
(The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1935
James Chadwick
“for the discovery of the neutron”

1936
Victor Franz Hess
“for his discovery of cosmic radiation”

Carl David Anderson
“for his discovery of the positron”

1937
Clinton Joseph Davisson and George Paget Thomson
“for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals”. See: wave-particle duality

1938
Enrico Fermi
“for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons”
1939
Ernest Orlando Lawrence
“for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements”
[edit]
1940s
Year Name Topics
1940
The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
1941

1942

1943
Otto Stern
“for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton”

1944
Isidor Isaac Rabi
“for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei”
1945
Wolfgang Pauli
“for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli principle”

1946
Percy Williams Bridgman
“for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made there within the field of high pressure physics”

1947
Sir Edward Victor Appleton
“for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer”

1948
Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett
“for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation”
1949
Hideki Yukawa (湯川 秀樹) “for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces”. See: Yukawa potential

[edit]
1950s
Year Name Topics
1950
Cecil Frank Powell
“for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method”
1951
Sir John Douglas Cockcroft and Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton
“for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles”
1952
Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell
“for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith”
1953
Frits (Frederik) Zernike
“for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope”

1954
Max Born
“for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction”
Walther Bothe
“for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith”
1955
Willis Eugene Lamb
“for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum”. See: Lamb shift

Polykarp Kusch
“for his precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron”
1956
William Bradford Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Houser Brattain
“for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect”
1957
Chen Ning Yang (楊振寧 Pinyin: Yáng Zhènníng) and Tsung-Dao Lee (李政道 Pinyin: Lǐ Zhèngdào)
“for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles”

1958
Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (Павел Алексеевич Черенков), Il’ia Frank (Илья Михайлович Франк), and Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm (Игорь Евгеньевич Тамм) “for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov-Vavilov effect”

1959
Emilio Gino Segre and Owen Chamberlain
“for their discovery of the antiproton”

[edit]
1960s
Year Name Topics
1960
Donald Arthur Glaser
“for the invention of the bubble chamber”

1961
Robert Hofstadter
“for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons”
Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer
“for his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection of the effect which bears his name”. See:Mossbauer effect

1962
Lev Davidovich Landau (Лев Давидович Ландау) “for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium”

1963
Eugene Paul Wigner
“for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles”
Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen
“for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure”
1964
Charles Hard Townes, Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov (Николай Геннадиевич Басов), and Aleksandr Prokhorov (Александр Михайлович Прохоров) “for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle”

1965
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga (朝永 振一郎), Julian Schwinger, and Richard P. Feynman
“for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles”
1966
Alfred Kastler
“for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms”
1967
Hans Albrecht Bethe
“for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars”

1968
Luis Walter Alvarez
“for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis”
1969
Murray Gell-Mann
“for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions”. See: Eightfold way

[edit]
1970s
Year Name Topics
1970
Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén
“for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto-hydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics”

Louis Eugene Félix Néel
“for fundamental work and discoveries concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in solid state physics”

1971
Dennis Gabor
“for his invention and development of the holographic method”

1972
John Bardeen, Leon Neil Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer
“for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory”

1973
Leo Esaki (江崎 玲於奈) and Ivar Giaever
“for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively”
Brian David Josephson
“for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effect”

1974
Sir Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish
“for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars”

1975
Aage Niels Bohr, Ben Roy Mottelson, and Leo James Rainwater
“for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection”
1976
Burton Richter and Samuel Chao Chung Ting (丁肇中 Pinyin: Dīng Zhàozhōng) “for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind”. In other words: for discovery of the J/Ψ particle as it confirmed the idea that baryonic matter (such as the nuclei of atoms) is made out of quarks.

1977
Philip Warren Anderson, Sir Nevill Francis Mott, and John Hasbrouck van Vleck
“for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems”
1978
Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa (Пётр Леонидович Капица) “for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics”
Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson
“for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation”

1979
Sheldon Lee Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg
“for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current”

[edit]
1980s
Year Name Topics
1980
James Watson Cronin and Val Logsdon Fitch
“for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons”. See: CP-violation

1981
Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Leonard Schawlow
“for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy”
Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn
“for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy”
1982
Kenneth G. Wilson
“for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions”
1983
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
“for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars”. See Chandrasekhar limit

William Alfred Fowler
“for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe”
1984
Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer
“for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction”
1985
Klaus von Klitzing
“for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect”

1986
Ernst Ruska
“for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope”

Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer
“for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope”

1987
Johannes Georg Bednorz and Karl Alexander Müller
“for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials”

1988
Leon Max Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, and Jack Steinberger
“for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino”
1989
Norman Foster Ramsey
“for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks”
Hans Georg Dehmelt and Wolfgang Paul
“for the development of the ion trap technique”
[edit]
1990s
Year Name Topics
1990
Jerome Isaac Friedman, Henry Way Kendall, and Richard Edward Taylor
“for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics”
1991
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
“for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers”
1992
Georges Charpak
“for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber”

1993
Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.
“for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation”
1994
Both “for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter”

Bertram Neville Brockhouse
“for the development of neutron spectroscopy”
Clifford Glenwood Shull
“for the development of the neutron diffraction technique”
1995
Both “for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics”
Martin Lewis Perl
“for the discovery of the tau lepton”

Frederick Reines
“for the detection of the neutrino”

1996
David Morris Lee, Douglas Dean Osheroff, and Robert Coleman Richardson
“for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3″

1997
Steven Chu(朱棣文, pinyin: zhū dìwén), Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, and William Daniel Phillips
“for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light”
1998
Robert B. Laughlin, Horst Ludwig Störmer, and Daniel Chee Tsui(崔琦, pinyin: cuī qí) “for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations”. See: Quantum Hall effect

1999
Gerardus ‘t Hooft and Martinus J.G. Veltman
“for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics”

[edit]
2000s
Year Name Topics
2000

Zhores Ivanovich Alferov (Жорес Иванович Алферов) and Herbert Kroemer
“for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and optoelectronics”

Jack St. Clair Kilby
“for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit”

2001
Eric Allin Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle, and Carl Edwin Wieman
“for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates”
2002
Raymond Davis Jr. and Masatoshi Koshiba (小柴 昌俊)
“for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos”

Riccardo Giacconi
“for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources”
2003
Alexei Alexeevich Abrikosov (Алексей Алексеевич Абрикосов), Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg (Виталий Лазаревич Гинзбург) and Anthony James Leggett
“for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids”

2004
David J. Gross, H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek
“for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction”

2005
Roy J. Glauber
“for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence”
John L. Hall and Theodor W. Hänsch
“for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique”
[edit]
See Also
• List of Nobel Prize in Physics winners by longevity
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
List of Nobel Prize laureates in Physiology or Medicine from 1901 to the present day.
Year Name Topics
1901
Emil Adolf von Behring
“for his serum therepy to treat diphtheria”

1902
Ronald Ross
“for research on malaria”

1903
Niels Ryberg Finsen
“for his light treatment of lupus vulgaris”

1904
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
“for work on the physiology of the digestive system”

1905
Robert Koch
“for discovering the cause of tuberculosis”

1906
Camillo Golgi, Santiago Ramón y Cajal
“for research on the nervous system”

1907
Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran
“for research into protozoa causing disease”

1908
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Paul Ehrlich
“for study of the immune system”

1909
Emil Theodor Kocher
“for work on the thyroid gland”

1910
Albrecht Kossel
“for research in cell biology, especially proteins and nucleic acids”

1911
Allvar Gullstrand
“for research on the image formation by the lens of the eye”

1912
Alexis Carrel
“for work on suture of blood vessels and transplantation”

1913
Charles Robert Richet
“for the discovery of anaphylaxis”

1914
Robert Bárány
“for research on the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear”

1919
Jules Bordet
“for discovery of the complement in the immune system”

1920
Schack August Steenberg Krogh
“for showing that the gas exchange in the lungs is ordinary diffusion”

1922
Archibald Vivian Hill, Otto Fritz Meyerhof
“for research on muscles, especially their generation of heat and the relationship between oxygen consumption and lactic acid metabolism ”

1923
Frederick Grant Banting, John James Richard Macleod
“for the discovery of insulin”

1924
Willem Einthoven
“for the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram”

1926
Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger
“for elucidating Spiroptera carcinoma and artificially inducing cancer in an animal.”

1927
Julius Wagner-Jauregg
“for healing general paralysis by infection with malaria”

1928
Charles Jules Henri Nicolle
“for work on typhus”

1929
Christiaan Eijkman, Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins
“for discovery of various vitamins”

1930
Karl Landsteiner
“for discovery of human blood types”

1931
Otto Heinrich Warburg
“for research on cytochromes in cellular respiration”

1932
Sir Charles Scott Sherrington, Edgar Douglas Adrian
“for work on the function of neurons, including the fact that stronger stimuli result in a higher frequency of nerve impulses”
1933
Thomas Hunt Morgan
“for discovering the role of chromosomes in heredity”

1934
George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot, William Parry Murphy
“for discovering liver therapy for anemia”

1935
Hans Spemann
“for the discovery of organizing centers in the early development of organisms”

1936
Sir Henry Hallett Dale, Otto Loewi
“for work on transmission of nerve impulses via neurotransmitters”

1937
Albert Szent-Györgyi von Nagyrapolt
“for the description of vitamin C and the discovery that oxygen combines with hydrogen in cellular respiration”

1938
Corneille Jean François Heymans
“for showing how blood pressure and oxygen content of the blood are measured by the body and transmitted to the brain”

1939
Gerhard Domagk
“for the discovery of the sulphonamide Prontosil, the first drug effective against bacterial infections”

1943
Carl Peter Henrik Dam, Edward Adelbert Doisy
“for the discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure”
1944
Joseph Erlanger, Herbert Spencer Gasser
“for the discovery of different types of nerve fibers”
1945
Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, Sir Howard Walter Florey
“for the discovery of penicillin and its properties in the cure of infectious diseases”

1946
Hermann Joseph Muller
“for the discovery that mutations can be induced by x-rays”

1947
Carl Ferdinand Cori, Gerty Theresa Cori (née Radnitz)
“for the discovery on how glycogen is converted to glucose in the body, and for the effects of hypophysis hormones on sugar metabolism”

Bernardo Alberto Houssay
“for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar”
1948
Paul Hermann Müller
“for the discovery of the insecticide DDT”

1949
Walter Rudolf Hess, Antonio Caetano De Abreu Freire Egas Moniz
“Hess for mapping the various functions of the midbrain; Moniz for discovering the therapeutic effect of lobotomy”

1950
Edward Calvin Kendall, Tadeus Reichstein, Philip Showalter Hench
“for the discovery of the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and function”

1951
Max Theiler
“for developing a vaccine for yellow fever”

1952
Selman Abraham Waksman
“for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis”

1953
Hans Adolf Krebs
“for the discovery of the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration”

Fritz Albert Lipmann
“for discovery and research on coenzyme A”

1954
John Franklin Enders, Thomas Huckle Weller, Frederick Chapman Robbins
“for showing how to cultivate poliomyelitis viruses in the test tube”
1955
Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell
“for research on enzymes and their actions, especially oxydizing enzymes”
1956
André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann, Dickinson W. Richards
“for showing how to insert a catheter into the heart and studying various heart diseases”
1957
Daniel Bovet
“for discovering synthetic drugs such as antihistamines that block the action of biological amines”

1958
George Wells Beadle, Edward Lawrie Tatum, Joshua Lederberg
“for showing that genes control individual steps in metabolism”

1959
Severo Ochoa, Arthur Kornberg
“for the synthesis of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA”

1960
Sir Frank MacFarlane Burnet, Peter Brian Medawar
“for the discovery that the immune system of the fetus learns how to distinguish between self and non-self”
1961
Georg von Békésy
“for elucidating the cochlea of the ear”

1962
Francis Harry Compton Crick, James Dewey Watson, Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
“for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material”[1]

1963
Sir John Carew Eccles, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Fielding Huxley
“for describing the electric transmission of impulses along nerves”

1964
Konrad Bloch, Feodor Lynen
“for research on cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism”

1965
François Jacob, André Lwoff, Jacques Monod
“for discovering messenger RNA, ribosomes, and the genes controlling the expression of other genes”
1966
Peyton Rous
“for the discovery of viruses that induce tumours”

Charles B. Huggins
“for the discovery of the treatment of prostate cancer with hormones”

1967
Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline, George Wald
“for describing the different types of light-sensitive cells in the eye and how light interacts with them”

1968
Robert W. Holley, Hargobind Khorana, Marshall W. Nirenberg
“for describing the genetic code and how it operates in protein synthesis”

1969
Max Delbrück, Alfred Hershey, Salvador E. Luria
“for work on the replication mechanism and genetics of viruses”

1970
Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler, Julius Axelrod
“for work on neurotransmitters”

1971
Earl W. Sutherland, Jr.
“for discovery of the action of hormones, especially epinephrine, via second messengers”

1972
Gerald M. Edelman, Rodney R. Porter
“for discovering the chemical structure of antibodies”

1973
Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen
“for the study of social animal behavior, especially the explanation of the “dance language” of bees and how young birds become fixated on their mother”
1974
Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, George E. Palade
“for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells”

1975
David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco, Howard Martin Temin
“for describing how tumor viruses act on the genetic material of the cell”
1976
Baruch S. Blumberg
“for the discovery of hepatitis B virus”

D. Carleton Gajdusek
“for describing the disease kuru caused by cannibalism ”
1977
Roger Guillemin, Andrew V. Schally
“for work on peptide hormones produced in the brain”

Rosalyn Yalow
“for creating the Yalow-Berson method to measure minute amounts of peptide hormones using antibodies”

1978
Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans, Hamilton O. Smith
“for the discovery of restriction enzymes which are instrumental in molecular biology”

1979
Allan M. Cormack, Godfrey N. Hounsfield
“for developing computer assisted tomography”

1980
Baruj Benacerraf, Jean Dausset, George D. Snell
“for discovery of the Major histocompatibility complex genes which encode cell surface molecules important for the immune system’s distinction between self and non-self”
1981
Roger W. Sperry
“for research on the cerebral hemispheres”

David H. Hubel, Torsten N. Wiesel
“for work on the processing of visual information in the brain”

1982
Sune Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson, John R. Vane
“for the discovery of prostaglandins”

1983
Barbara McClintock
“for discovery of mobile genetic elements or transposons in maize”

1984
Niels K. Jerne, Georges J.F. Köhler, César Milstein
“for work on the immune system and the production of monoclonal antibodies”

1985
Michael S. Brown, Joseph L. Goldstein
“for describing the regulation of cholesterol metabolism”

1986
Stanley Cohen, Rita Levi-Montalcini
“for discovering growth factors”

1987
Susumu Tonegawa
“for discovering how the large diversity of antibodies is produced genetically”
1988
Sir James W. Black,Gertrude B. Elion,George H. Hitchings
“for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment”

1989
J. Michael Bishop, Harold E. Varmus
“for discovering the cellular origins of retroviral oncogenes”

1990
Joseph E. Murray, E. Donnall Thomas
“for work on organ and cell transplantation”

1991
Erwin Neher, Bert Sakmann
“for developing techniques which show that ion channels exist in the cell membrane and which allow to study their properties”
1992
Edmond H. Fischer, Edwin G. Krebs
“for discovering how phosphorylation of proteins is used to regulate biological processes”
1993
Richard J. Roberts, Phillip A. Sharp
“for the discovery that genes in eukaryotes are not contiguous strings but contain introns, and that the splicing of messenger RNA to delete those introns can occur in different ways, yielding different proteins from the same DNA sequence”
1994
Alfred G. Gilman, Martin Rodbell
“for the discovery of G proteins and their role in signal transduction in cells”

1995
Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Eric F. Wieschaus
“for the discovery of the genes involved in the developmental program of the fruit fly, the homeobox genes”
1996
Peter C. Doherty, Rolf M. Zinkernagel
“for describing how MHC molecules are used by white blood cells to detect and kill virus-infected cells.”

1997
Stanley B. Prusiner
“for the discovery of prions, infectious protein particles”
1998
Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, Ferid Murad
“for discovery of the signalling properties of nitric oxide”

1999
Günter Blobel
“for the discovery that newly synthesized proteins contain “address tags” which direct them to the proper location within the cell”
2000
Arvid Carlsson
“for proving that dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain whose depletion leads to symptoms of Parkinson’s disease”

Paul Greengard
“for showing how neurotransmitters act on the cell and can activate a central molecule known as DARPP-32″

Eric R. Kandel
“for describing how short-term and long-term memory is formed on the molecular level”
2001
Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, Sir Paul M. Nurse
“for the discovery of cyclin and cyclin dependent kinase, central molecules in the regulation of the cell cycle”

2002
Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz, John E. Sulston
“for establishing the precise order in which cells in the worm C. elegans divide and die, and for elucidating the process of programmed cell death or apoptosis”

2003
Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield
“for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging”

2004
Linda B. Buck and Richard Axel
“for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system”

2005
Barry J. Marshall and Robin Warren
“for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease”

[edit]
External links
Nobel Prize in Literature
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Nobel Prize in Literature is awarded annually to an author from any country who has, in the words of Alfred Nobel, produced “the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency”. The “work” in this case generally refers to an author’s work as a whole, not to any individual work, though individual works are sometimes cited in the awards. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year.
The original citation of Nobels has led to much controversy. In the original Swedish, the word idealisk can be translated as either “idealistic” or “ideal”. In earlier years the Nobel Committee stuck closely to the intent of the will, and left out certain world-renowned writers such as Leo Tolstoy and Henrik Ibsen for the Prize, probably because their works were not “idealistic” enough. In later years the wording is interpreted much more liberally, and the Prize is awarded, as is often argued that it should be, for lasting literary merit. However, the award continues to generate some amount of controversy as more famous names in literature are sometimes neglected in favor of less widely received ones, as in Dario Fo in 1997. However, this may be seen as unavoidable in all literary awards based on subjective opinions. Whether or not the committee has been unduly biased towards certain political perspectives is a matter of discussion.
The Nobel Prize is not the sole measure of literary excellence and lasting worth. The following people, for instance, missed the Nobel Prize: Jorge Amado, Jorge Luis Borges, Bertolt Brecht, Julio Cortázar, Anton Chekhov, Jacques Derrida, Lion Feuchtwanger, Graham Greene, Aldous Huxley, Henrik Ibsen, James Joyce, Franz Kafka, Alberto Moravia, Vladimir Nabokov, George Orwell, Fernando Pessoa, Marcel Proust, Oswald Spengler, August Strindberg, Hjalmar Söderberg, Leo Tolstoy, Arnold Toynbee, and Evelyn Waugh.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Nomination procedure
• 2 List of Nobel Laureates in Literature
• 3 Trivia
• 4 Most awarded languages
• 5 Most awarded countries
• 6 See also
• 7 External links

[edit]
Nomination procedure
Each year the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Members of the Academy, members of literature academies and societies, professors of literature and language, former Nobel literature laureates, and the presidents of writers’ organizations are all allowed to nominate a candidate. However, it is not possible to nominate oneself.
Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and about fifty proposals are returned. These proposals must be received by the Academy by February 1, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates, and by summer the list is reduced further to some five names. In October that year, members of the Academy vote, and the candidate who receives more than half the number of votes is named the Nobel Laureate in Literature. The process is similar to those of other Nobel Prizes.
The prize money of the Nobel Prize has been fluctuating since its inauguration but as present stands at 10 million Swedish krona. The winner also wins a gold medal and a Nobel diploma.
[edit]
List of Nobel Laureates in Literature
List of Nobel Prize laureates in Literature from 1901 to the present date.
Year Name Country Language(s)
1901
Sully Prudhomme
France
French

1902
Theodor Mommsen
Germany
German

1903
Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson
Norway
Norwegian

1904
Frédéric Mistral
France
Occitan

José Echegaray y Eizaguirre
Spain
Spanish

1905
Henryk Sienkiewicz
Poland
Polish

1906
Giosuè Carducci
Italy
Italian

1907
Rudyard Kipling
United Kingdom
English

1908
Rudolf Christoph Eucken
Germany
German

1909
Selma Lagerlöf
Sweden
Swedish

1910
Paul Heyse
Germany
German

1911
Count Maurice Maeterlinck
Belgium
French

1912
Gerhart Hauptmann
Germany
German

1913
Rabindranath Tagore
India
Bengali

1915
Romain Rolland
France
French

1916
Verner von Heidenstam
Sweden
Swedish

1917
Karl Adolph Gjellerup
Denmark
Danish

Henrik Pontoppidan
Denmark
Danish

1919
Carl Spitteler
Switzerland
German

1920
Knut Hamsun
Norway
Norwegian

1921
Anatole France
France
French

1922
Jacinto Benavente
Spain
Spanish

1923
William Butler Yeats
Ireland
English

1924
Władysław Reymont
Poland
Polish

1925
George Bernard Shaw
Ireland
English

1926
Grazia Deledda
Italy
Italian

1927
Henri Bergson
France
French

1928
Sigrid Undset
Norway
Norwegian

1929
Thomas Mann
Germany
German

1930
Sinclair Lewis
United States
English

1931
Erik Axel Karlfeldt
Sweden
Swedish

1932
John Galsworthy
United Kingdom
English

1933
Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin
Russia (in exile)
Russian

1934
Luigi Pirandello
Italy
Italian

1936
Eugene O’Neill
United States
English

1937
Roger Martin du Gard
France
French

1938
Pearl S. Buck
United States
English

1939
Frans Eemil Sillanpää
Finland
Finnish

1944
Johannes Vilhelm Jensen
Denmark
Danish

1945
Gabriela Mistral
Chile
Spanish

1946
Hermann Hesse
Switzerland
German

1947
André Gide
France
French

1948
T. S. Eliot
United States/United Kingdom
English

1949
William Faulkner
United States
English

1950
Bertrand Russell
United Kingdom
English

1951
Pär Lagerkvist
Sweden
Swedish

1952
François Mauriac
France
French

1953
Sir Winston Churchill
United Kingdom
English

1954
Ernest Hemingway
United States
English

1955
Halldór Laxness
Iceland
Icelandic

1956
Juan Ramón Jiménez
Spain
Spanish

1957
Albert Camus
France
French

1958
Boris Pasternak (declined the prize)[1]
Russia
Russian

1959
Salvatore Quasimodo
Italy
Italian

1960
Saint-John Perse
France
French

1961
Ivo Andric
Yugoslavia
Serbo-Croat

1962
John Steinbeck
United States
English

1963
Giorgos Seferis
Greece
Greek

1964
Jean-Paul Sartre (declined the prize)[2]
France
French

1965
Michail Sholokhov
Russia
Russian

1966
Shmuel Yosef Agnon
Israel
Hebrew

Nelly Sachs
Germany
German

1967
Miguel Ángel Asturias
Guatemala
Spanish

1968
Yasunari Kawabata
Japan
Japanese

1969
Samuel Beckett
Ireland
English/French

1970
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
Russia
Russian

1971
Pablo Neruda
Chile
Spanish

1972
Heinrich Böll
Germany (West)
German

1973
Patrick White
Australia
English

1974
Eyvind Johnson
Sweden
Swedish

Harry Martinson
Sweden
Swedish

1975
Eugenio Montale
Italy
Italian

1976
Saul Bellow
Canada/United States
English

1977
Vicente Aleixandre
Spain
Spanish

1978
Isaac Bashevis Singer
United States
Yiddish

1979
Odysseas Elytis
Greece
Greek

1980
Czesław Miłosz
Poland/United States
Polish

1981
Elias Canetti
United Kingdom
German

1982
Gabriel García Márquez
Colombia
Spanish

1983
William Golding
United Kingdom
English

1984
Jaroslav Seifert
Czechoslovakia
Czech

1985
Claude Simon
France
French

1986
Akinwande Oluwole Soyinka
Nigeria
English

1987
Joseph Brodsky
Russia/United States
Russian/English

1988
Naguib Mahfouz
Egypt
Arabic

1989
Camilo José Cela
Spain
Spanish

1990
Octavio Paz
Mexico
Spanish

1991
Nadine Gordimer
South Africa
English

1992
Derek Walcott
St. Lucia
English

1993
Toni Morrison
United States
English

1994
Kenzaburo Oe
Japan
Japanese

1995
Seamus Heaney
Ireland
English

1996
Wisława Szymborska
Poland
Polish

1997
Dario Fo
Italy
Italian

1998
José Saramago
Portugal
Portuguese

1999
Günter Grass
Germany
German

2000
Gao Xingjian
France/China
Chinese

2001
Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul
United Kingdom
English

2002
Imre Kertész
Hungary
Hungarian

2003
John Maxwell Coetzee
South Africa
English

2004
Elfriede Jelinek
Austria
German

2005
Harold Pinter
United Kingdom
English

[edit]
Trivia
• The oldest person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature was Theodor Mommsen, who was 85 when he received the Prize in 1902. The youngest was Rudyard Kipling, who was 42 when he won the Prize in 1907.
• Mommsen was also the first Nobel laureate born (November 30, 1817), a combination of his advanced age and the early year in which he received the Prize. He was born nearly 129 years before the most recently born laureate, Elfriede Jelinek (October 20, 1946).
• The longest-lived laureate to date is Bertrand Russell, who was 97 when he passed away. The oldest living laureate is Naguib Mahfouz, currently 94 years old. He will surpass Russell if he lives past August 29, 2009. The shortest-lived laureate was Albert Camus, who died in a car crash at the age of 46, three years after receiving the award.
[edit]
Most awarded languages
Language
spoken Laureates %
English
26 25.00
French
13 12.50
German
12 11.54
Spanish
10 9.62
Italian
6 5.77
Swedish
6 5.77
Russian
5 4.81
Polish
4 3.85
Danish
3 2.88
Norwegian
3 2.88
Greek
2 1.92
Japanese
2 1.92
Arabic
1 0.96
Bengali
1 0.96
Chinese
1 0.96
Czech
1 0.96
Finnish
1 0.96
Hebrew
1 0.96
Hungarian
1 0.96
Icelandic
1 0.96
Occitan
1 0.96
Portuguese
1 0.96
Serbo-Croat
1 0.96
Yiddish
1 0.96

[edit]
Most awarded countries
Country Laureates %
France
13 12.75
United States
12 11.76
United Kingdom
10 9.80
Germany
8 7.84
Italy
6 5.88
Sweden
6 5.88
Russia
5 4.90
Spain
5 4.90
Ireland
4 3.92
Poland
4 3.92
Denmark
3 2.94
Norway
3 2.94
Chile
2 1.96
Greece
2 1.96
Japan
2 1.96
South Africa
2 1.96
Switzerland
2 1.96
Australia
1 0.98
Austria
1 0.98
Belgium
1 0.98
Canada
1 0.98
China
1 0.98
Colombia
1 0.98
Czechoslovakia
1 0.98
Egypt
1 0.98
Finland
1 0.98
Guatemala
1 0.98
Hungary
1 0.98
Iceland
1 0.98
India
1 0.98
Israel
1 0.98
Mexico
1 0.98
Nigeria
1 0.98
Portugal
1 0.98
St. Lucia
1 0.98
Yugoslavia
1 0.98
Recipients listed as belonging to more than one country are counted as one for each of those. E.g., T. S. Eliot is counted as an American and again as a Briton. Declining or exiled recipients are counted under the listed country. East and West German recipients

Nobel Peace Prize
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

The Nobel Peace Prize Medal featuring a portrait of Alfred Nobel
The Nobel Peace Prize is one of five Nobel Prizes bequested by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel. Ironically, as some point out, Alfred Nobel was the man whose inventions include dynamite and Ballistite, which led to the death of millions of people. He created the Nobel Prize in an effort to make up for what he believed to be past evils. According to the will of Alfred Nobel, the prize should be awarded “to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between the nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses”.
The Peace Prize is awarded annually in Oslo, the capital of Norway, unlike the prizes in physics, chemistry, medicine and literature, which are awarded in Stockholm, Sweden. For the past decade, the Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony has been followed the next day by the Nobel Peace Prize Concert, which is broadcast to over 150 countries and more than 450 million households around the world. The Concert has received worldwide fame and the participation of top celebrity hosts and performers.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Appointment Process
• 2 Nominations
• 3 Laureates
• 4 Controversy
• 5 See also
• 6 External links

[edit]
Appointment Process

The Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway.
The Norwegian Nobel Committee, whose members are chosen by the Norwegian Parliament, is appointed to select the laureate for the Peace Prize, and the prize is awarded by its chairman, currently Dr. Ole Danbolt Mjøs. At the time of Alfred Nobel’s death Sweden and Norway were in a personal union in which the Swedish government was solely responsible for foreign policy, and the Norwegian Parliament was responsible for Norwegian domestic policy. While Alfred Nobel never told anybody [1] why he didn’t give a Swedish body the task of awarding the Peace Prize, one of the suggested reasons has been to prevent the manipulation of the selection process by foreign powers. Other suggestions point to the fact that the Norwegian Assembly (Storting) was the first national legislature to vote support for the international peace movement and Nobel’s admiration of Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, the Norwegian patriot and leading author at that time.
[edit]
Nominations
Nominations for the prize may be made by a broad array of qualified individuals, including former recipients, members of national assemblies and congresses, university professors, international judges, and special advisors to the prize committee. In some years as many as 199 nominations have been received. The nominations are kept secret by the committee which asks that nominators do the same. Over time many individuals have become known as “Nobel Peace Prize Nominees”, but this designation has no official standing [2]. Nominations from 1901 to 1951 have been released in a database. When the past nominations were released it was discovered that Adolf Hitler was once nominated in 1939, though the nomination was retracted in February of the same year. Other infamous nominees included Joseph Stalin and Benito Mussolini.
Unlike the other Nobel Prizes, the Nobel Peace Prize may be awarded to persons or organizations that are in the process of resolving an issue, rather than upon the resolution of the issue. Since the prize can be given to individuals involved in ongoing peace processes, some of the awards now appear, with hindsight, questionable, particularly when those processes failed to bear lasting fruit. For example, the awards given to Theodore Roosevelt, Yasser Arafat, Lê Ðức Thọ, and Henry Kissinger were particularly controversial and criticized; the latter prompted two dissenting committee members to resign [3]. The Nobel Committee has also received criticism from right-wing groups who see their decisions as guided by an apparent left-wing bias.
In 2005, the Nobel Peace Center opened, to present the laureates, conflicts, and work for peace around the world.
[edit]
Laureates
List of Nobel Prize laureates in Peace from 1901 to the present day.
Year Individual or Organization Notes
1901
Jean Henri Dunant (Switzerland)
founder of the Red Cross and initiator of the Geneva Convention.

Frédéric Passy (France)
founder and president of the Société Française pour l’arbitrage entre nations.

1902
Élie Ducommun (Switzerland) and Charles Albert Gobat
honorary secretaries of the Permanent International Peace Bureau in Berne.

1903
Sir William Randal Cremer (UK)
secretary of the International Arbitration League.

1904
Institut de droit international (Gent, Belgium).
1905
Bertha Sophie Felicitas Baronin von Suttner, née Countess Kinsky von Chinic und Tettau (Austria-Hungary) writer, honorary president of the Permanent International Peace Bureau.

1906
Theodore Roosevelt (USA)
president of the United States, for drawing up the peace treaty in the Russo-Japanese War.

1907
Ernesto Teodoro Moneta (Italy)
president of the Lombard League of Peace.

Louis Renault (France)
professor of International Law.
1908
Klas Pontus Arnoldson (Sweden) founder of the Swedish Peace and Arbitration Association.

Fredrik Bajer (Denmark)
honorary president of the Permanent International Peace Bureau.

1909
Auguste Marie Francois Beernaert (Belgium)
member of the Cour Internationale d’Arbitrage.

Paul-Henri-Benjamin d’Estournelles de Constant (France) founder and president of the French parliamentary group for international arbitration. Founder of the Comité de défense des intérets nationaux et de conciliation internationale

1910
Bureau International Permanent de la Paix (Permanent International Peace Bureau), Berne.
1911
Tobias Michael Carel Asser (Netherlands) initiator of the International Conferences of Private Law in The Hague.

Alfred Hermann Fried (Austria-Hungary) founder of Die Waffen Nieder.

1912
Elihu Root (USA)
for initiating various arbitration agreements.
1913
Henri la Fontaine (Belgium)
president of the Permanent International Peace Bureau.

1914
not awarded World War I

1915
not awarded World War I

1916
not awarded World War I

1917
International Red Cross, Geneva.
1918
Not awarded
1919
Woodrow Wilson (USA)
president of the United States, for founding the League of Nations.

1920
Léon Victor Auguste Bourgeois
president of the Council of the League of Nations.

1921
Hjalmar Branting (Sweden)
prime minister, Swedish delegate to the Council of the League of Nations.

Christian Lous Lange (Norway)
secretary-general of the Inter-Parliamentary Union

1922
Fridtjof Nansen (Norway)
Norwegian delegate to the League of Nations, originator of the Nansen passports for refugees.

1923
Not awarded
1924

1925
Sir Austen Chamberlain (UK)
for the Locarno Treaties.

Charles Gates Dawes (USA)
chairman of the Allied Reparation Commission and originator of the Dawes Plan.

1926
Aristide Briand (France)
for the Locarno Treaties.

Gustav Stresemann (Germany)
for the Locarno Treaties.

1927
Ferdinand Buisson (France)
founder and president of the League for Human Rights.

Ludwig Quidde (Germany)
delegate to numerous peace conferences.
1928
Not awarded
1929
Frank B. Kellogg (USA)
for the Briand-Kellogg Pact.

1930
Archbishop Lars Olof Nathan (Jonathan) Söderblom (Sweden)
leader of the ecumenical movement.
1931
Jane Addams (USA)
international president of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom

Nicholas Murray Butler (USA)
for promoting the Briand-Kellogg Pact.

1932
Not awarded
1933
Sir Norman Angell (Ralph Lane) (UK) writer, member of the Executive Committee of the League of Nations and the National Peace Council.

1934
Arthur Henderson (UK)
chairman of the League of Nations Disarmament Conference

1935
Carl von Ossietzky (Germany)
pacifist journalist.
1936
Carlos Saavedra Lamas (Argentina) president of the League of Nations and mediator in a conflict between Paraguay and Bolivia.

1937
The Viscount Cecil of Chelwood
founder and president of the International Peace Campaign.

1938
Nansen International Office For Refugees, Geneva.

1939
Not awarded World War II

1940
Not awarded World War II

1941
Not awarded World War II

1942
Not awarded World War II

1943
Not awarded World War II

1944
International Committee of the Red Cross (awarded retroactively in 1945).
1945
Cordell Hull (USA)
for co-initiating the United Nations.

1946
Emily Greene Balch (USA)
honorary international president of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom

John R. Mott (USA)
chairman of the International Missionary Council and president of the World Alliance of Young Men’s Christian Associations

1947
The Friends Service Council (UK) and The American Friends Service Committee (USA)
on behalf of the Religious Society of Friends, better known as the Quakers.
1948
Not awarded Apparently it would have been awarded to Mahatma Gandhi had he not been assassinated. See the Nobel e-museum article. [4]

1949
The Lord Boyd-Orr (UK)
director General Food and Agricultural Organization, president National Peace Council, president World Union of Peace Organizations.

1950
Ralph Bunche (USA)
for mediating in Palestine (1948).

1951
Léon Jouhaux (France)
president of the International Committee of the European Council, vice president of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, vice president of the World Federation of Trade Unions, member of the ILO Council, delegate to the UN.
1952
Albert Schweitzer (Germany)
for founding the Lambarene Hospital in Gabon.

1953
American Secretary of State George Catlett Marshall
for the Marshall Plan.

1954
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

1955
Not awarded
1956
Not awarded
1957
Lester Bowles Pearson (Canada)
president of the 7th session of the United Nations General Assembly for introducing peacekeeping forces to resolve the Suez Crisis.

1958
Georges Pire (Belgium)
leader of L’Europe du Coeur au Service du Monde, a relief organization for refugees.

1959
Philip Noel-Baker (UK)
for his lifelong ardent work for international peace and co-operation.
1960
Albert Lutuli (South Africa)
president of the ANC (African National Congress).
1961
Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden)
secretary-general of the UN (awarded posthumously).
1962
Linus Carl Pauling (USA)
for his campaign against nuclear weapons testing.
1963
International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva.

League of Red Cross Societies, Geneva.
1964
Martin Luther King Jr (USA)
campaigner for civil rights.
1965
United Nation’s Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

1966
Not awarded
1967

1968
René Cassin (France)
president of the European Court of Human Rights.

1969
International Labour Organization (I.L.O.), Geneva.

1970
Norman Borlaug (USA)
for research at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center.

1971
Chancellor Willy Brandt (West Germany) for West Germany’s Ostpolitik, embodying a new attitude towards Eastern Europe and East Germany.

1972
Not awarded
1973
Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger (USA) and Foreign Minister Lê Ðức Thọ (Vietnam, declined) for the Vietnam peace accord.

1974
Seán MacBride (Ireland)
president of the International Peace Bureau and the Commission of Namibia of the United Nations.

Eisaku Sato (佐藤榮作) (Japan)
prime minister.
1975
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (USSR) for his campaigning for human rights.
1976
Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan
founders of the Northern Ireland Peace Movement (later renamed Community of Peace People).

1977
Amnesty International, London
for its campaign against torture.
1978
President Mohamed Anwar Al-Sadat (Egypt) and Prime Minister Menachem Begin (Israel) for negotiating peace between Egypt and Israel.

1979
Mother Teresa (India)
poverty awareness campaigner (India)
1980
Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (Argentina) human rights
1981
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

1982
Alva Myrdal (Sweden) and Alfonso García Robles (Mexico)
delegates to the United Nations General Assembly on Disarmament.
1983
Lech Wałęsa (Poland)
founder of Solidarność and campaigner for human rights. Later served as the first president of Poland after the fall of Communism

1984
Bishop Desmond Mpilo Tutu (South Africa) for his work against apartheid.

1985
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Boston.
1986
Elie Wiesel (USA)
author, Holocaust survivor

1987
President Óscar Arias Sánchez (Costa Rica) for initiating peace negotiations in Central America.

1988
United Nations Peace-Keeping Forces.
For participation in numerous conflicts since 1956. As of the time of the award, 736 people from a variety of nations had lost their lives in peacekeeping efforts.
1989
Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama.
for his consistent resistance to the use of violence in his people’s struggle to regain their liberty.
1990
President Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (USSR)
“for his leading role in the peace process which today characterizes important parts of the international community”
1991
Aung San Suu Kyi (Myanmar)
“for her non-violent struggle for democracy and human rights”
1992
Author Rigoberta Menchú (Guatemala)
“in recognition of her work for social justice and ethno-cultural reconciliation based on respect for the rights of indigenous peoples”
1993
President Nelson Mandela (South Africa) and former President Frederik Willem de Klerk (South Africa)
“for their work for the peaceful termination of the apartheid regime, and for laying the foundations for a new democratic South Africa”
1994
PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat, Foreign Minister Shimon Peres (שמעון פרס) (Israel) and Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (יצחק רבין) (Israel) “for their efforts to create peace in the Middle East”
1995
Józef Rotblat (Poland/UK) and the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
“for their efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international politics and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms”
1996
Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo (East Timor) and José Ramos Horta (East Timor)
“for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor”
1997
International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) and Jody Williams
“for their work for the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines”
1998
John Hume and David Trimble (both Northern Ireland)
“for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland”
1999
Médecins Sans Frontières, Brussels. “in recognition of the organization’s pioneering humanitarian work on several continents”
2000
President Kim Dae Jung (김대중) (South Korea)
“for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular”
2001
The United Nations and Secretary-General Kofi Annan (Ghana)
“for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world”
2002
Jimmy Carter (USA) – former President of the United States
“for his decades of untiring effort to find peaceful solutions to international conflicts, to advance democracy and human rights, and to promote economic and social development”
2003
Shirin Ebadi (شيرين عبادي), (Iran)
“for her efforts for democracy and human rights. She has focused especially on the struggle for the rights of women and children.”
2004
Wangari Maathai (Kenya)
“for her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace”
2005
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Mohamed ElBaradei (محمد البرادعي) (Egypt)
“for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way”
[edit]
Controversy
The Nobel Peace Prize is controversial in numerous respects. The parliament of Norway is responsible for appointing the Peace Prize committee. The same parliament has pursued partisan military aims by ratifying membership in NATO in 1949, by hosting NATO troops, and by leasing ports and territorial waters to US ballistic missile submarines in 1983. By contrast Sweden, which awards the other Nobel Prizes, has remained neutral.
A particular claimed weakness of the Nobel Peace Prize awarding process is the swiftness of recognition. The scientific and literature Nobel prizes are usually issued in retrospect, often two or three decades after the intellectual achievement, thus representing a time-proven confirmation and balance of approval by the established academic community, seldom contradicted by newer developments. In contrast, the Nobel Peace prize at times takes the form of summary judgment, being issued in the same year as or the year immediately following the political act. Some commentators have suggested that to award a peace prize on the basis of unquantifiable contemporary opinion is unjust or possibly erroneous, especially as many of the judges cannot themselves be said to be impartial observers. The fight against Communism is played out most noticeably in this Scandinavean paradise of minds. This situation may be said to deprive the ‘real’ peace makers, who may not be recognised for their long-term or subtle approaches. However, others have pointed to the uniqueness of the Peace prize in that its high profile can often focus world attention on particular problems and possibly aid in the peace-efforts themselves. When looked at more closely, the peace-laureates often have a lifetime’s history of working at and promoting humanitarian issues, as in the examples of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., an African-American Christian civil rights activist (1964 laureate); Mother Teresa, a Catholic missionary nun (1979 laureate); and Aung San Suu Kyi, a Buddhist nonviolent pro-democracy activist (1991 laureate). While still others are selected for efforts rather than success, as in the examples of Jimmy Carter and Mohamed ElBaradei.
[edit]
See also
• International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
• Nobel Prize
• Norwegian Nobel Committee
• Sweden-Norway
• Nobel Prize controversies
Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (in Swedish Sveriges Riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne), is a prize awarded each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field of economics. The award was instituted by the Bank of Sweden (the world’s oldest central bank) at its 300th anniversary in 1968. Although it was not one of the awards established in the will of Alfred Nobel, the economics laureates receive their diploma and gold medal from the Swedish monarch at the same December 10 ceremony in Stockholm as the Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature. The amount of money awarded to the economics laureates is also equal to that of the other prizes.
The prestige of the prize derives in part from its association with the awards created by Alfred Nobel’s will, an association which has often been a source of controversy. The prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Economics or, more correctly, as the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.
In February 1995, it was decided that the economics prize be essentially defined as a prize in social sciences, opening the Nobel Prize to great contributions in fields like political science, psychology, and sociology. Also, the Economics Prize Committee was changed to require two non-economists to decide the prize each year, whereas previously the prize committee had consisted of five economists.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Award process
• 2 Controversy
• 3 Winners
• 4 1960s
• 5 1970s
• 6 1980s
• 7 1990s
• 8 2000s
• 9 External links

[edit]
Award process
The economics laureates, like the Nobel laureates in chemistry and physics, are chosen by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Nominations of about one hundred living persons are made each year by qualified nominators and are received by a five to eight member committee, which then submits its choice of winners to the Nobel Assembly for its final approval. No more than three people can share the prize for a given year. The final award is made in Stockholm, and is accompanied by a prize (10 million Kronor, or roughly 1 million euros as of 2004).
[edit]
Controversy
Controversy stems from a few questions:
1. May its affiliation with the Nobel name, despite not being part of Alfred Nobel’s bequest, be justified by the similarity of the award process?
2. Have there been any systematic political biases?
3. Is objective evaluation of candidates more difficult for a social science like economics, relative to physics, chemistry, medicine, literature or peace?
4. Is it true that the most influential economists were awarded the prize in the ’70s and early ’80s, and that since then the available candidates in the field have been weaker and hence more controversial?
Among the most vocal critics of the economics prize is Peter Nobel who is a peripheral member of the Nobel family – his paternal grandfather’s grandmother was one of the daughters of Alfred Nobel’s elder brother Ludvig.
[edit]
Winners
[edit]
1960s
Year Name Topics
1969 Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch (Norway), Jan Tinbergen (Netherlands)
for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes
[edit]
1970s
Year Name Topics
1970 Paul Samuelson (United States)
for the scientific work through which he has developed static and dynamic economic theory and actively contributed to raising the level of analysis in economic science
1971
Simon Kuznets (USA)
for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development
1972
John Hicks (United Kingdom), Kenneth Arrow (USA) for their pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium theory and welfare theory
1973
Wassily Leontief (USA)
for the development of the input-output method and for its application to important economic problems.
1974
Gunnar Myrdal (Sweden), Friedrich Hayek (UK)
for their pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena
1975
Leonid Kantorovich (Soviet Union), Tjalling Koopmans (USA) for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources
1976
Milton Friedman (USA)
for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy.
1977
Bertil Ohlin (Sweden), James Meade (UK)
for their pathbreaking contribution to the theory of international trade and international capital movements
1978
Herbert Simon (USA)
for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations
1979
Theodore Schultz (USA), Arthur Lewis (UK)
for their pioneering research into economic development research with particular consideration of the problems of developing countries
[edit]
1980s
Year Name Topics
1980 Lawrence Klein (USA)
for the creation of econometric models and the application to the analysis of economic fluctuations and economic policies
1981
James Tobin (USA)
for his analysis of financial markets and their relations to expenditure decisions, employment, production and prices
1982
George Stigler (USA)
for his seminal studies of industrial structures, functioning of markets and causes and effects of public regulation
1983
Gerard Debreu (USA)
for having incorporated new analytical methods into economic theory and for his rigorous reformulation of the theory of general equilibrium
1984
Richard Stone (UK)
for having made fundamental contributions to the development of systems of national accounts and hence greatly improved the basis for empirical economic analysis
1985
Franco Modigliani (USA)
for his pioneering analyses of saving and of financial markets
1986
James Buchanan Jr. (USA)
for his development of the contractual and constitutional bases for the theory of economic and political decision-making
1987
Robert Solow (USA)
for his contributions to the theory of economic growth
1988
Maurice Allais (France)
for his pioneering contributions to the theory of markets and efficient utilization of resources
1989
Trygve Haavelmo (Norway)
for his clarification of the probability theory foundations of econometrics and his analyses of simultaneous economic structures
[edit]
1990s
Year Name Topics
1990 Harry Markowitz (USA), Merton Miller (USA), William Sharpe (USA)
for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics
1991
Ronald Coase (UK)
for his discovery and clarification of the significance of transaction costs and property rights for the institutional structure and functioning of the economy
1992
Gary Becker (USA)
for having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of human behaviour and interaction, including nonmarket behaviour
1993
Robert Fogel (USA), Douglass North (USA)
for having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change
1994
John Harsanyi (USA), John Forbes Nash (USA), Reinhard Selten (Germany)
for their pioneering analysis of equilibria in the theory of non-cooperative games
1995
Robert Lucas Jr. (USA)
for having developed and applied the hypothesis of rational expectations, and thereby having transformed macroeconomic analysis and deepened our understanding of economic policy
1996
James Mirrlees (UK), William Vickrey (USA)
for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information
1997
Robert Carhart Merton (USA), Myron Scholes (USA) for a new method to determine the value of derivatives
1998
Amartya Sen (India)
for his contributions to welfare economics
1999
Robert Mundell (Canada)
for his analysis of monetary and fiscal policy under different exchange rate regimes and his analysis of optimum currency areas
[edit]
2000s
Year Name Topics
2000 James Heckman (USA),
Daniel McFadden (USA)
for his development of theory and methods for analyzing selective samples
for his development of theory and methods for analyzing discrete choice
2001
George A. Akerlof (USA), Michael Spence (USA), Joseph E. Stiglitz (USA)
for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information.
2002
Daniel Kahneman (Israel/USA),
Vernon L. Smith (USA)
for having integrated insights from psychological research into economic science, especially concerning human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty
for having established laboratory experiments as a tool in empirical economic analysis, especially in the study of alternative market mechanisms
2003
Robert F. Engle (USA), Clive W. J. Granger (UK)
for methods of analyzing economic time series with time-varying volatility or common trends
2004
Finn E. Kydland (Norway), Edward C. Prescott (USA)
for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles
2005
Robert J. Aumann (Israel/USA), Thomas Schelling (USA)
for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis